Chapter Forty-Seven: Nomads into Sovereigns: The Seljuq Transformation of Iran and the Forging of a New Islamic Order
Introduction: The Crisis of the Eleventh Century and the Steppe Response
The dawn of the eleventh century witnessed the Islamic world convulsed by a crisis of legitimacy and authority that would fundamentally reshape the political landscape from the Oxus to the Bosphorus. The once-mighty Abbasid caliphate, heir to the Prophet's political legacy and symbol of Islamic unity, had been reduced to a hollow shell of ceremonial authority in Baghdad. Real power resided with the Shiʿi Buyid amīrs, whose very sectarian identity challenged the orthodox foundations of Sunni Islam while their Persian cultural orientation created profound tensions with Arab and Turkic populations.
Eastward in Iran, the Ghaznavid empire under Mahmud's successors had ossified into a predatory state sustained primarily through seasonal raids into the Indian subcontinent. The wealth of Hindustan flowed through Ghazni's coffers but rarely enriched the Iranian heartland, where agricultural productivity declined under punitive taxation and administrative neglect. Urban centers from Nishapur to Isfahan groaned under fiscal burdens while rural populations faced increasing impoverishment. The traditional compact between rulers and ruled—predicated on justice, security, and prosperity—had fractured across much of the eastern Islamic world.
This systemic breakdown created a political vacuum that would be filled not by established dynasties or urban elites, but by nomadic peoples emerging from the Central Asian steppes. The Seljuqs, a confederation of Oghuz Turkic tribes united under the leadership of Seljuq ibn Duqaq's descendants, represented a fundamentally different model of political organization. Unlike the ghulām military slaves who had dominated Islamic armies for centuries, or the mercenary companies that served established dynasties, the Seljuqs arrived as free warriors bound by kinship ties and tribal solidarity. Their transformation from nomadic raiders into the architects of a new Islamic political order constitutes one of the most remarkable metamorphoses in medieval history.
The Seljuq achievement lay not merely in military conquest but in their unprecedented synthesis of three distinct civilizational traditions: the martial dynamism and administrative flexibility of the Turkic steppes, the sophisticated bureaucratic culture of the Persian plateau, and the religious authority and legal framework of Sunni Islam. This synthesis would prove so durable and influential that its essential features would shape Islamic governance from the Mamluks of Egypt to the Ottomans of Anatolia and the Mughals of India.
The Genesis of Seljuq Power: From Tribal Confederation to Islamic Sultanate
The Khurasan Crucible: Early Seljuq Consolidation
The emergence of Seljuq power in Khurasan during the 1030s represented more than a simple nomadic incursion; it constituted a sophisticated political movement that exploited the contradictions within Ghaznavid rule while offering an alternative vision of Islamic governance. Tughril Beg and his brother Chaghri Beg understood that sustainable conquest required more than military superiority—it demanded the construction of new forms of legitimacy that could unite diverse populations under Seljuq authority.
The brothers' initial strategy focused on Khurasan's disaffected Iranian elites, particularly the landed gentry (dihqāns) and urban merchants who had suffered under Ghaznavid fiscal rapacity. Contemporary sources, including the anonymous Tārīkh-i Sīstān and the later accounts of Rāvandī, suggest that many Persian nobles actively collaborated with the Seljuqs, viewing them as liberators rather than conquerors. This collaboration provided the Turkic newcomers with essential administrative expertise while legitimizing their rule among settled populations.
The decisive confrontation at Dandanqān in 1040 marked a watershed not merely in military terms but in the broader reconfiguration of political authority in the eastern Islamic world. Sultan Masʿud of Ghazni's crushing defeat stemmed not from tactical incompetence but from the fundamental contradictions within his empire's structure. His army, composed primarily of Turkish ghulāms dependent on regular payment, faced a confederation of free Turkic warriors whose tribal bonds provided cohesion that mercenary relationships could not match. More critically, the Seljuq victory demonstrated to Iranian populations that Ghaznavid dominance was neither inevitable nor divinely sanctioned.
The Baghdad Revolution: Redefining Caliphal Authority
Tughril Beg's entry into Baghdad in 1055 constituted perhaps the most significant constitutional innovation in Islamic political history since the Abbasid revolution itself. The arrangement negotiated between the Seljuq leader and Caliph al-Qāʾim established a new paradigm of Islamic governance that would endure for centuries: the dual sovereignty of caliph and sultan.
This system resolved several intractable problems that had plagued the Islamic world since the ninth century. The Abbasid caliphs retained their role as commanders of the faithful (amīr al-muʾminīn) and sources of religious legitimacy, but effective political and military authority resided with the sultan. Unlike the Buyids, who had ruled as shadowy powers behind a puppet caliph, or the Fatimids, who had established a rival caliphate, the Seljuqs created a complementary relationship that strengthened both institutions.
The constitutional implications were profound. The caliph's investiture of Tughril with the title sultān al-arḍ wa'l-samāʾ (Sultan of Earth and Heaven) established the legal foundation for temporal authority exercised in the name of, but independently from, spiritual leadership. This innovation allowed the Islamic world to maintain ideological unity while accommodating the practical realities of decentralized political power. Moreover, by restoring Sunni orthodoxy to Baghdad after more than a century of Shiʿi dominance, the arrangement positioned the Seljuqs as champions of religious revival and political restoration.
The Anatolian Transformation: Manzikert and Its Consequences
Strategic Context: The Byzantine-Seljuq Confrontation
Alp Arslan's westward expansion into Anatolia emerged from both strategic necessity and historical opportunity. The Seljuq empire's rapid growth had created an enormous frontier requiring constant management, while the Byzantine Empire's recovery under the Macedonian dynasty presented both challenge and temptation. The emperor Romanos IV Diogenes' aggressive posture toward Seljuq territories in eastern Anatolia made confrontation virtually inevitable, but the scale and consequences of their clash at Manzikert exceeded all contemporary expectations.
The Battle of Manzikert on August 26, 1071, represents one of those rare engagements that permanently alter the trajectory of world history. Alp Arslan's victory over Romanos IV not only eliminated Byzantine resistance in eastern Anatolia but triggered a demographic revolution that would transform the peninsula's ethnic and religious composition. The subsequent Turkic migrations into Anatolia created the human foundation for the Sultanate of Rum and, ultimately, the Ottoman Empire.
Contemporary Byzantine chroniclers, particularly Michael Attaleiates and John Skylitzes, portrayed Manzikert as an unmitigated catastrophe, but modern scholarship suggests a more complex interpretation. The battle's immediate military consequences were less severe than its psychological and political impact. Alp Arslan, focused primarily on consolidating Seljuq control in Syria and confronting Fatimid expansion, showed little immediate interest in conquering Anatolia systematically. However, his victory opened the floodgates to independent Turkic bands (ghāzīs) who established autonomous principalities across the peninsula.
The Demographic Revolution: Turkification and Islamization
The transformation of Anatolia from a predominantly Greek Orthodox Christian region into a Turkic Muslim heartland represents one of history's most complete demographic revolutions. Unlike the Arab conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, which generally left existing populations in place while imposing a new political and religious superstructure, the Turkic settlement of Anatolia involved substantial population replacement and cultural transformation.
Archaeological evidence from sites like Ani, Kayseri, and Konya reveals the systematic adaptation of Byzantine urban centers to Turkic needs and Islamic requirements. Churches were converted into mosques, Greek inscriptions replaced with Arabic and Persian texts, and architectural styles evolved to reflect new cultural preferences. More significantly, the nomadic Turkic economy, based on pastoralism and seasonal migration, fundamentally altered land use patterns across the Anatolian plateau.
The process of Islamization proceeded through multiple channels. Military conquest provided the initial framework, but sustained conversion required more subtle mechanisms: intermarriage between Turkic settlers and local populations, the economic advantages of accepting Islam, and the activities of Sufi missionaries who presented Islamic spirituality in forms comprehensible to former Christians. The emergence of syncretic religious practices, particularly in rural areas, suggests that Islamization involved negotiation and adaptation rather than simple replacement.
The Malikshah Synthesis: Imperial Consolidation and Cultural Florescence
Nizam al-Mulk and the Science of Governance
The reign of Malikshah (1072-1092) marked the apogee of Seljuq power, when the empire's territorial extent reached its maximum and its institutional framework achieved greatest sophistication. Central to this achievement was the collaboration between the young sultan and his extraordinary vizier, Nizam al-Mulk (1018-1092), whose administrative genius provided the empire with unprecedented organizational coherence.
Nizam al-Mulk's reforms addressed the fundamental challenge facing all medieval empires: how to extract sufficient resources from agricultural populations to maintain large standing armies without destroying the productive base of society. His systematization of the iqṭāʿ system represented a masterful adaptation of earlier Islamic practices to contemporary realities. Unlike European feudalism, which granted hereditary tenure over land, or the Chinese examination system, which created a scholarly bureaucracy, the iqṭāʿ balanced military efficiency with administrative control.
The vizier's theoretical work, the Siyāsatnāma (Book of Government), articulated a comprehensive philosophy of Islamic statecraft that drew upon Persian mirrors for princes (andarz literature), Islamic legal theory (fiqh), and practical administrative experience. His emphasis on justice (ʿadl) as the foundation of stable government, regular inspection of provincial administration, and careful balance between civil and military authority created a template that would influence Islamic political thought for centuries.
Perhaps most innovatively, Nizam al-Mulk's establishment of the Nizamiyya madrasas represented an early attempt at creating standardized higher education across a vast empire. These institutions, founded in Baghdad, Nishapur, Isfahan, and other major cities, served multiple functions: training a cadre of Sunni scholars and administrators, countering Shiʿi and Ismaʿili intellectual influence, and creating networks of loyalty that transcended tribal and regional divisions.
The Isfahan Renaissance: Art, Architecture, and Intellectual Life
Malikshah's designation of Isfahan as his primary capital transformed the ancient city into the most sophisticated urban center between Constantinople and Chang'an. The Seljuq court's patronage of arts, sciences, and letters created an intellectual environment that rivaled the great cultural centers of the Islamic Golden Age.
The architectural achievements of this period, particularly the reconstruction of the Masjed-i Jameʿ of Isfahan, established new paradigms that would influence Islamic building for centuries. The four-iwan plan, perfected under Seljuq patronage, provided a architectural solution that balanced functional requirements with aesthetic grandeur. The innovative use of brick construction, geometric decoration, and calligraphic ornamentation created a distinctly Persian Islamic style that spread throughout the Persianate world.
The court's intellectual life achieved particular distinction in mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. Omar Khayyam's contributions to algebraic theory and his reform of the Persian calendar demonstrated the period's commitment to empirical investigation and practical application. His Jalali calendar, with its sophisticated leap-year system, proved more accurate than the Gregorian calendar introduced in Europe five centuries later.
In philosophy and theology, the period witnessed both the culmination of classical Islamic thought and the beginnings of new syntheses. The appointment of Abu Hamid al-Ghazali to the Nizamiyya of Baghdad marked a crucial moment in Islamic intellectual history. His critique of Aristotelian philosophy (Tahāfut al-Falāsifa) and synthesis of legal scholarship with Sufi spirituality (Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn) created new frameworks for understanding the relationship between reason and revelation that would dominate Islamic thought through the early modern period.
The Eastern Frontier: Sanjar and the Limits of Imperial Power
The Qara Khitai Challenge: Nomadic Cycles and Imperial Decline
The reign of Sultan Sanjar (1118-1157) from his capital at Merv symbolized both the persistence and ultimate limitations of Seljuq power. As the last sultan to maintain credible authority over substantial portions of the original empire, Sanjar's struggles illuminate the inherent contradictions within the Seljuq political system and the cyclical nature of steppe-sedentary relations.
The Battle of Qatwan (1141), where Sanjar suffered devastating defeat at the hands of the Qara Khitai, marked a crucial turning point in Central Asian political history. The Qara Khitai, remnants of the Khitan Liao dynasty displaced by the Jurchens in northern China, represented a new model of steppe confederation that combined Chinese administrative techniques with nomadic military organization. Their victory demonstrated that the Seljuq synthesis, however sophisticated, could not indefinitely resist the demographic and military pressures generated by the Central Asian steppes.
The significance of Qatwan extended beyond immediate military consequences. Sanjar's defeat shattered the aura of Seljuq invincibility and encouraged rebellions throughout the eastern provinces. More fundamentally, it revealed the vulnerability of sedentary Islamic states to fresh waves of nomadic invasion, presaging the Mongol catastrophe of the following century.
The Ghuzz Rebellion: Internal Contradictions and Imperial Fragmentation
Sanjar's later captivity by the Ghuzz Turks (1153-1156) exposed the fundamental instability within the Seljuq political system. The Ghuzz, originally allies and tribal kinsmen of the Seljuqs, had grown increasingly alienated from the sedentarized court culture of Merv and Isfahan. Their rebellion represented not merely a succession dispute but a rejection of the entire trajectory of Seljuq political development.
This internal revolt illuminated the persistent tension between nomadic and sedentary elements within the Seljuq confederation. As the dynasty became increasingly Persianized and bureaucratized, it lost touch with its tribal roots while failing to develop alternative sources of legitimacy among settled populations. The iqṭāʿ system*, initially designed to integrate nomadic warriors into sedentary society, had evolved into a source of fragmentation as iqṭāʿ holders pursued independent interests rather than imperial cohesion.
Economic Foundations: Commerce, Agriculture, and Urban Development
The Caravan Economy: Seljuqs as Commercial Facilitators
The Seljuq empire's geographic position athwart the major trade routes connecting East Asia, South Asia, the Islamic world, and Byzantium provided enormous opportunities for commercial taxation and facilitation. Unlike purely extractive nomadic confederations, the Seljuqs developed sophisticated mechanisms for protecting and profiting from long-distance commerce while avoiding the excessive taxation that had undermined previous dynasties.
The construction and maintenance of caravanserais along major routes represented a significant imperial investment that yielded substantial returns. These fortified way stations, exemplified by structures like the Ribat-i Malik in the Kyzylkum Desert, provided security, provisions, and banking services for merchants while generating customs revenues for the state. The standardization of weights, measures, and currency across Seljuq territories further facilitated commercial integration.
Archaeological evidence from sites like Merv, Nishapur, and Ray reveals the extraordinary prosperity of Seljuq commercial centers. Ceramic production, metalworking, and textile manufacturing reached new levels of sophistication, while the discovery of Chinese porcelain, Indian spices, and Byzantine silks in Seljuq contexts demonstrates the empire's integration into Afro-Eurasian trade networks.
Agricultural Innovation and Hydraulic Engineering
The Seljuq period witnessed significant innovations in agricultural technology and water management that increased productivity across the Iranian plateau. The dynasty's investment in qanāt construction and maintenance, particularly in the Isfahan region, expanded the area under cultivation while providing models for subsequent rulers.
Contemporary agricultural treatises, such as the anonymous Fālnāma-i Bistan, reveal sophisticated understanding of crop rotation, seed selection, and soil management. The introduction of new crops from India and Central Asia, facilitated by the empire's extensive trade networks, diversified agricultural production and improved nutritional standards in urban centers.
The integration of nomadic pastoral economies with sedentary agriculture proved particularly successful in regions like Azerbaijan and eastern Anatolia, where seasonal migration patterns complemented rather than competed with farming activities. This integration created a more resilient economic base that could better withstand climatic variations and political disruptions.
Religious Policy and Sectarian Dynamics
The Sunni Revival: Institutional Innovation and Ideological Consolidation
The Seljuq commitment to Sunni orthodoxy represented both genuine religious conviction and calculated political strategy. The establishment of the Nizamiyya madrasas and similar institutions created an unprecedented infrastructure for Islamic education that standardized legal interpretation while training loyal administrators for imperial service.
The curriculum of these institutions, emphasizing Shafiʿi jurisprudence, Ashʿari theology, and Arabic literature, reflected the dynasty's commitment to mainstream Sunni scholarship while accommodating Persian cultural elements. The graduation of thousands of scholars from Nizamiyya institutions created networks of influence that extended far beyond the empire's political boundaries, carrying Seljuq-sponsored interpretations of Islamic law and theology throughout the Muslim world.
The integration of Sufi spirituality into this orthodox framework proved particularly significant for the long-term development of Islamic civilization. Unlike the Abbasids' often hostile relationship with mystical movements, the Seljuqs embraced Sufi orders as valuable allies in the struggle against Shiʿi and Ismaʿili influence. The patronage of figures like Abu Saʿid Abu'l-Khayr and the early development of the Mevlevi order in Anatolia established precedents for the close relationship between state power and organized mysticism that would characterize later Islamic empires.
Shiʿi Resistance and Ismaʿili Insurgency
Despite their commitment to Sunni orthodoxy, the Seljuqs faced persistent challenges from Shiʿi populations and Ismaʿili militants throughout their territories. The Fatimid caliphate's influence in Syria and the activities of Ismaʿili agents (dāʿīs) in Iran created alternative centers of loyalty that competed directly with Seljuq authority.
The Nizari Ismaʿili state established by Hasan-i Sabbah at Alamut (1090) represented the most serious ideological challenge to Seljuq rule. The Ismaʿilis' strategy of targeted assassination, including the murder of Nizam al-Mulk himself, demonstrated that even the most sophisticated security apparatus could not entirely suppress determined religious opposition.
The Seljuq response combined military action with ideological warfare. The systematic refutation of Ismaʿili doctrines in Nizamiyya curricula, the recruitment of Shiʿi scholars willing to acknowledge Seljuq legitimacy, and the careful balance between persecution and toleration reflected sophisticated understanding of the religious dynamics within their empire.
Diplomatic Relations and International Context
The Crusading Challenge: Islam's Response to Christian Reconquest
The arrival of the First Crusade in 1096 presented the fragmented Seljuq world with an unprecedented challenge. The Crusaders' capture of Antioch (1098) and Jerusalem (1099) occurred at a moment when Seljuq unity had already fractured following Malikshah's death, preventing coordinated Islamic response to the Christian invasion.
The Seljuq Sultanate of Rum, under Qilij Arslan I, bore the initial brunt of Crusading pressure in Anatolia. The sultanate's survival and eventual flourishing demonstrated the resilience of Seljuq political institutions even under extreme stress. The development of ghāzī ideology—the concept of frontier warfare as religious duty—provided ideological framework for sustained resistance to Christian reconquest.
The competition between various Seljuq successors for leadership of the anti-Crusading struggle reflected deeper tensions within the Islamic world about authority and legitimacy. The eventual emergence of figures like Zengi and Saladin as champions of Islamic unity occurred partly because the fragmented Seljuq dynasties could not provide effective coordination against the common threat.
Eastern Diplomacy: Qarakhitai, Ghaznavids, and the Steppe Frontier
Seljuq diplomacy in Central Asia and Afghanistan required constant negotiation with multiple powers representing different political and cultural traditions. Relations with the Qarakhitai involved not merely military competition but negotiation between Islamic and Chinese political concepts, as the Qarakhitai claimed the Mandate of Heaven while ruling predominantly Muslim populations.
The final dissolution of Ghaznavid power in eastern Afghanistan created opportunities for Seljuq expansion but also introduced new instabilities as various Turkic and Afghan groups competed for control of the lucrative Indian trade routes. The Seljuq policy of supporting client rulers while avoiding direct administration reflected realistic assessment of the costs and benefits of imperial expansion.
Marriage diplomacy played a crucial role in Seljuq eastern policy. Strategic marriages with Qarakhitai, Qarakhanid, and local Afghan rulers created networks of alliance that complemented military and commercial relationships. These diplomatic marriages also facilitated cultural exchange, introducing Central Asian artistic and literary traditions into Seljuq court culture.
Legacy and Transformation: The Enduring Seljuq Synthesis
Institutional Innovations and Their Diffusion
The Seljuq political synthesis proved remarkably durable and influential, providing templates that would shape Islamic governance for centuries. The concept of the sultanate as distinct from but complementary to the caliphate became the standard form of Islamic political organization from Morocco to Indonesia. The Ayyubids, Mamluks, Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals all drew upon Seljuq precedents in constructing their own systems of governance.
The administrative innovations developed under Nizam al-Mulk, particularly the systematization of the iqṭāʿ system and the integration of military service with land tenure, influenced successor states throughout the Islamic world. The Mamluk system in Egypt and Syria, the Ottoman timar system, and the Mughal jagir system all reflected Seljuq innovations adapted to different circumstances and requirements.
The educational infrastructure created by the Nizamiyya madrasas established patterns of Islamic higher education that persisted into the modern period. The integration of legal training, theological education, and administrative preparation within a single institutional framework became the norm for Islamic education, spreading Seljuq-sponsored interpretations of Islamic law and theology far beyond the dynasty's political boundaries.
Cultural Synthesis and Artistic Innovation
The Seljuq fusion of Turkic, Persian, and Islamic elements created new forms of artistic and literary expression that profoundly influenced subsequent cultural development. The architectural innovations of the period, particularly the four-iwan mosque plan and the development of sophisticated brick construction techniques, established paradigms that would dominate Islamic building through the early modern period.
In literature, the Seljuq court's patronage of Persian poetry and prose created new standards of literary excellence. The development of elaborate panegyric forms, the refinement of ghazal poetry, and the emergence of historical writing in Persian rather than Arabic reflected the dynasty's role in establishing Persian as a major language of Islamic civilization.
The decorative arts flourished under Seljuq patronage, with innovations in ceramics, metalwork, and textile production that would influence Islamic artistic development for centuries. The emergence of distinctive regional styles—Anatolian, Syrian, and Persian—demonstrated the empire's success in fostering local creativity while maintaining overall cultural coherence.
The Mongol Catastrophe and Seljuq Survival
The Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century obliterated most Seljuq successor states, but elements of the Seljuq synthesis survived and eventually revived. The Sultanate of Rum's survival until 1307, albeit as a Mongol client state, preserved Seljuq administrative and cultural traditions in Anatolia. More significantly, the Mongol adoption of Islamic governmental practices often involved the revival of Seljuq institutions and personnel.
The post-Mongol recovery of the Islamic world, particularly the rise of the Ottomans in Anatolia and the Safavids in Iran, drew heavily upon Seljuq precedents. The Ottoman combination of ghāzī ideology with sophisticated administration, and the Safavid fusion of Turkic military organization with Persian bureaucracy and Shiʿi ideology, both reflected essential elements of the original Seljuq synthesis.
Conclusion: The Seljuq Moment in World History
The Seljuq transformation of Iran and the broader Middle East represents a pivotal moment in world history when nomadic peoples successfully adapted sedentary governmental forms while maintaining essential elements of their original social organization. Their achievement lay not merely in military conquest but in the creation of new syntheses that preserved the strengths of different civilizational traditions while overcoming their individual weaknesses.
The Seljuq empire's fragmentation should not obscure the fundamental success of their political experiment. By establishing the sultanate as a legitimate form of Islamic government, integrating nomadic military elites with sedentary administrative systems, and fostering cultural syntheses that enriched Islamic civilization, they created frameworks that would influence governance and culture throughout the Islamic world for centuries.
The Seljuq achievement also demonstrates the crucial role of political innovation in historical development. Their ability to create new forms of legitimacy, authority, and cultural expression enabled the Islamic world to adapt to changing circumstances while preserving essential continuities. In transforming themselves from nomadic confederations into sophisticated imperial dynasties, the Seljuqs proved that historical change need not involve the simple replacement of one civilization by another but could instead generate creative syntheses that enriched human experience.
Their legacy endures not only in the specific institutions and cultural forms they created but in their demonstration that successful political transformation requires both military effectiveness and cultural creativity, both respect for existing traditions and willingness to innovate, both local adaptation and universal vision. In bridging the worlds of steppe and sown, nomad and city-dweller, the Seljuqs created a model of cultural synthesis that remains relevant for understanding processes of political and social transformation in the contemporary world.
Footnotes
* The Iqṭāʿ system was an Islamic state administrative and land tenure practice where the government assigned individuals, or muqṭaʿs, the right to collect revenue from a specific area or community. In exchange for these fiscal rights, the muqṭaʿ typically provided military service and was responsible for maintaining order. This system served to relieve the state treasury by allowing soldiers to collect their own salaries directly from the land and to support military administration and finances.Key aspects of the Iqṭāʿ system:
Tax Collection:
Military Obligation:
The recipient, the muqṭaʿ, was expected to fulfill military service to the state, often in exchange for the assigned rights.
Financial Relief:
It helped alleviate the burden on the central government's treasury by allowing a portion of the state's revenue to be collected directly by the muqṭaʿ.
Land Tenure:
The system granted fiscal rights to collect revenue from a territory, which was legally considered state land.
Not a Property Grant:
Unlike a hereditary feudal land grant, the muqṭaʿ did not receive full ownership rights; the land technically remained in the state's possession.
Evolution and Regional Variation:
The system evolved over time and varied in different parts of the Islamic world, with later developments like the Ottoman Timar system showing distinct characteristics.
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